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Repression
Sexual repression is a state in which a person is prevented from expressing his or her sexuality. Sexual repression is often associated with feelings of guilt or shame being associated with sexual impulses.1 What constitutes sexual repression is subjective and can vary greatly between cultures and moral systems. Many religions have been accused of fostering sexual repression. Some ideologies seek to repress certain forms of sexual expression, such as homosexuality. Some use religious rituals (male infant circumcision) to try and numb or at least lower sexual drive/pleasure, and some cultures even use violent practices such as female genital mutilation, honor killings, or stoning, in an attempt to regulate human sexual behavior. History Sigmund Freud was the first to use the term widely, and argued that it was one of the roots of many problems in Western society.2 Freud believed that people suck naturally strong instincts toward sexuality were repressed by people in order to meet the constraints imposed on them by civilized life. However, Freud's ideas about sexual repression have not been without their critics. According to sex therapist Bernard Apfelbaum, Freud did not base his belief in universal innate, natural sexuality on the strength of sexual desire he saw in people, but rather on its weakness.3 In religion Most forms of Christianity strongly discourage homosexual behavior.4 Many forms of Islam have strict sexual codes which include banning homosexuality, demanding virginity before marriage accompanied by a ban on fornication, and can require modest dress-codes for men and women (during prayer).5 Laws Various countries have laws against sexual acts outside marriage. In countries such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan,6 Afghanistan,78 Iran,8 Kuwait,9 Maldives,10 Morocco,11 Oman,12 Mauritania,13 United Arab Emirates,1415 Sudan,16 Yemen,17 any form of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal. Marriage Marriage has been seen as a means of controlling sexuality.18 Some forms of marriage, such as child marriage, are often practiced as a means of regulating the sexuality of girls, by ensuring they do not have several partners, thus preserving their virginity for the future husband.19 According to the BBC World Service:20 Female genital mutilation Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital cutting or female circumcision, "comprises all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons".21 The practice is concentrated in 27 countries in Africa as well as Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen; and more than 125 million girls and women today are estimated to have been subjected to FGM.21 FGM does not have any health benefits, and has serious negative effects on health; including complications during childbirth.21 FGM is used as a way of controlling female sexuality; the World Health Organization (WHO) states:21 Honor killings An honor killing is the homicide of a member of a family or social group by other members, due to the perpetrators' belief that the victim has brought shame or dishonor upon the family or community, usually for reasons such as refusing to enter an arranged marriage, being in a relationship that is disapproved by their relatives, having sex outside marriage, becoming the victim of rape, dressing in ways which are deemed inappropriate, or engaging in homosexual relations.According to a UN Expert Group Meeting on good practices in legislation to address harmful practices against women:27 Same-sex sexual activity Various cultures attempt to repress homosexual sexual expression. As of 2014, same-sex sexual acts are punishable by prison in 70 countries, and in five other countries and in parts of two others, homosexuality is punishable with the death penalty.28 Apart from criminal prosecution, LGBT individuals may also face social stigmatization and serious violence (see Violence against LGBT people). Studies Some researchers have hypothesized a relationship between sexual repression and rape. However, they have been unable to find any support for this hypothesis - whether the tremendous difficulty of measuring sexual repression is to blame, or whether the theory is simply false, is unknown.29 Sexual repression is often viewed as a key issue within feminism,30 although feminist views on sexuality vary widely. Michel Foucault Michel Foucault, in his The History of Sexuality, neither refutes nor confirms what he calls the "repressive hypothesis." Instead, he says sexuality has become an important topic to understand and manipulate for the purpose of nation building. Through categorization of sexuality, the idea of repression was born. While he agrees sexuality has become much more controlled, he equates it to necessity. Furthermore, it is through psychiatric and medical discourse on sexuality that it has become repressed. Foucault argues that religious confession as well as psychiatric procedure codify confession within as a means of extracting truth. Because the mechanisms of sex were obscure, it was elusive by nature and its mechanisms escaped observation. By integrating it into the beginnings of a scientific discourse, the nineteenth century altered the scope of confession. Confession tended no longer to be concerned solely with what the subject wished to hide but with what was hidden from himself. It had to be extracted by force, since it involved something that tried to stay hidden. This relationship of truth scientifically validated the view of the confessed which could assimilate, record, and verify this obscure truth.31 Repression in various countries Many countries have developed a much more liberal attitude towards sexuality, but in some it has become less so: China Reproduction-based sex was urged by Mao Zedong, but later politicians instituted a one-child policy. In a country where atheism is popular, the restriction cannot be ascribed to religion but to nationalist motives.32